China’s Critical-Mineral Export Controls: Leverage and Its Limits

Six small piles of rare-earth oxide powders in different colors on a white surface

China’s critical-mineral export controls have become Beijing’s most direct form of economic leverage over the United States and its allies. Since 2023 China’s commerce ministry, MOFCOM, has put gallium, germanium, graphite, antimony, tungsten and seven heavy rare earths under export licensing,…

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